Part I. Multilingual
contexts:The challenge for education systems
Part II. The
normative framework for languages and education
A. United
Nations standard-setting instruments
B. UNESCO
declarations and conventions
C. Outcomes
from international conferences
Part III. UNESCO
guidelines on language and education Notes
Contents
Preface
Education for All means a quality education for
all.In today ’s world this means including consideration of the many varied
cultural and linguistic contexts that exist in contemporary societies.These
pose a challenge for policy-makers,concerned on the one hand with ensuring
qualifications of anormative nature for the whole population of a country,while
at the same time protecting the right to be different of those who belong to
specific linguistic and ethnic populations.Increasingly globalized economies
and societies,ever more driven by digital knowledge,make these challenges
particularly complex.UNESCO has a strong commitment to the inherent value of
cultural diversity and the need to maintain it.Education is both a tool for and
a reflection of cultural diversity.In addition,research has shown that learners
learn best in their mother tongue as a prelude to and complement of bilingual
education approaches. This document Education in a Multilingual Worldaims to
clarify some of the
key concepts and issues that surround the
debate and presents in a simplified and synthetic form the many declarations
and recommendations that have made reference to the issues of languages and
education. These are stated as UNESCO guidelines and principles.They are the
fruit of dialogue and discussion during many international meetings and United
Nations and UNESCO conferences,and of informed expertise in the world of
language policy and education.An expert group meeting held in Paris in
September 2002*enriched the original document while serving to explore further
UNESCO ’s role in this field. We hope that this paper will serve to shape
thinking in Member States throughout the world on the question of language and
education,and we encourage its translation into as many languages as possible.*Financial support to this meeting from the Finnish National Commission
for UNESCO is gratefully acknowledged.
UNESCO has an essential role to play in
providing international frameworks for education policy and practice on key and
complex issues.Language and,in particular,the choice of language of instruction
in education is one such concern and often invokes contrasting and deeply felt positions.Questions
of identity,nationhood and power are closely linked to the use of specific
languages in the classroom.Language itself,moreover,possesses its own dynamics
and is constantly undergoing processes of both continuity and change,impacting
upon the communication modes of different societies as it evolves.Educational
policy makers have difficult decisions to make with regard to
languages,schooling and the curriculum in which the technical and the political
often overlap.While there are strong educational arguments in favour of mother
tongue (or first language)instruction,a careful balance also needs to be made
between enabling people to use local languages in learning, and providing
access to global languages of communication through education.The purpose of
this position paper,therefore,is to consider some of the central issues
concerning languages and education and to provide related guidelines and
principles.In doing so we are conscious of the need for a clear statement on
language policy in relation to education,particularly within the context of
Education for All and in terms of the Dakar goals of ensuring that by 2015 all
children have access to quality primary education and that there is a 50 per
cent increase in adult literacy by the year 2015. In 1953 UNESCO published the expert report on The Use of Vernacular Languages in
Education and this continues to be the most frequently cited UNESCO document on language issues in education.Significant changes have taken
place over the past fifty years,however:there have been profound political
transformations leading to new language policies especially in postcolonial and
newly independent countries;many hundreds of languages have disappeared
throughout the world and many more remain endangered; migratory movements on a
mass scale have brought new and varied languages to other countries and
continents; the internet has dramatically affected the way in which language
and languages are used for communication and indeed for learning;and rapidly
accelerating globalization increasingly challenges the continued existence of
many small,local identities frequently based on language.The time has
come,therefore,for UNESCO to reconsider its position on languages and
education. This position paper is divided into three separate parts.In Part
I,we present the key concepts that are used in relation to multilingual
education.The aim is to clarify a set of meanings and terms used in relation to
languages and education.In Part II,we present a synthesis of the normative framework
for languages and education based,firstly, on an analysis of United Nations
standard-setting instruments;secondly,on a discussion of specific UNESCO
conventions and declarations make reference to issues of language and
culture;and,thirdly,on the outcomes and recommendations of international
conferences related directly or indirectly to issues of language and education.
Part III of the position paper provides a synthesis of the many discussions and
agreements on language issues that have been adopted under the auspices of both
the United Nations and UNESCO.These are placed within a set of guidelines and
principles with the objective of making UNESCO ’s position clear and giving
them a wider distribution in a more accessible format.
Education in many countries of the world takes
place in multilingual contexts. Most plurilingual societies have developed an ethos
which balances and respects the use of different languages in daily life.
From the perspective of these societies and of the language communities
themselves, multilingualism is more a way of life than a problem to be solved.
The challenge is for education systems to adapt to these complex realities and
provide a quality education which takes into consideration learners’ needs,
whilst balancing these at the same time with social, cultural and political
demands. While uniform solutions for plural societies, may be both
administratively and managerially simpler, they disregard the risks involved
both in terms of learning achievement and loss of linguistic and cultural
diversity. In this part of the document we discuss some of the basic issues
which surround the provision of education in diverse linguistic situations.
Linguistic diversity and multilingualism
Linguistic diversity reflects the existence of
the multitude of languages spoken in the world which is variously estimated at
between 6 000 and 7 000 languages.Safeguarding this diversity today is one of
the most urgent challenges facing our world.Estimates suggest that at least
half of them are in danger of disappearing in the coming years.1 While some countries are linguistically
homogeneous,such as Iceland,many countries and regions display a wealth of
linguistic diversity,for example,Indonesia,with over 700 languages, and Papua
New Guinea with over 800 languages.2 The actual distribution of linguistic diversity is uneven.Over 70 per
cent of all languages in the world are found in just 20 nation states,among
them some of the poorest countries in the world.In general,however,bilingual
and multilingual contexts,that is,the presence of different linguistic groups
living in the same country,are the norm rather than the exception throughout
the world,both in the North and the South.Bilingualism and multilingualism
,that is,the use of more than one language in daily life,will be normal
practice in these contexts.
MULTILINGUAL CONTEXTS :THE CHALLENGE FOR
EDUCATION SYSTEMS >Part I.
Linguistically diverse contexts cover a range
of scenarios.Broadly speaking, however,these correspond either to more
traditionally diverse situations where several,or even up to many hundreds of
languages have been spoken in a region over a long period of time,or to more
recent developments (particularly in urban concentrations),the result of
migratory phenomena,where in some city schools there may be as many as 30 or 40
different mother tongues among students.In all cases,there is a need to take
into consideration the specific learning needs of children in relation to the
language or languages of the home and those of the school.
Minority and majority languages
The concept of linguistic diversity itself is
relative,however,and is usually measured in terms of national boundaries,giving
some languages the status of majority language and others that of minority
language according to specific national contexts.Mandarin,for example,one of
the most widely spoken languages in the world,which is spoken by almost 900
million people, is a majority language in China,but in other countries where
only part of the population is of Chinese language and culture,it has the
status of a minority language in the face of other national or majority
languages of those countries.Similarly,a minority language in a large country
may,be regarded as a majority language in a smaller country.However,most of the
world s
Languages including sign languages for the deaf
and braille for the blind, are minority languages in any national
context.Nevertheless,the term ‘minority ’ is often ambiguous and may be
interpreted differently in distinct contexts because it may have both numerical
and social or political dimensions.In some cases it may be simply used as a
euphemism for non-elite or subordinate groups,whether they constitute a
numerical majority or minority in relation to some other group that is
politically and socially dominant.
Official and national languages
Although there are more than 20 States with
more than one official language (India alone,for example,has 19 official
languages while South Africa has 11), the majority of countries in the world
are monolingual nation states in the sense of recognizing,de jure or de
facto,only one official language for government and legal purposes.That is not
to say that they are not bilingual or multilingual societies,but rather that
while there may be many languages widely used in a country these do not
necessarily have the legal authority of an official language.In many countries
that were previously under colonial regimes,the official language tends to be
the language of the former colonizers.In addition to official languages,several
countries recognize national languages,which may be compulsory in education.The
choice of language in the educational system confers a power and prestige
through its use in formal instruction.Not only is there a symbolic
aspect,referring to status and visibility,but also a conceptual aspect
referring to shared values and worldview expressed through and in that
language.
Language(s) of instruction
The language of instruction in or out of school
refers to the language used for teaching the basic curriculum of the
educational system.The choice of the language or indeed the languages of
instruction (educational policy might recommend the use of several languages of
instruction)is a recurrent challenge in the development of quality
education.While some countries opt
for one language of instruction,often the
official or majority language,others have chosen to use educational strategies
that give national or local languages an important place in schooling.Speakers
of mother tongues, which are not the same as the national or local language,are
often at a considerable disadvantage in the educational system similar to the
disadvantage in receiving instruction in a foreign official language.
Mother tongue instruction
Mother tongue instruction generally refers to
the use of the learners’ mother tongue as the medium of instruction.
Additionally, it can refer to the mother tongue as a subject of instruction.It
is considered to be an important component of quality education,particularly in
the early years.The expert view is that mother tongue instruction should cover
both the teaching of and the teaching throughthis language.
MULTILINGUAL CONTEXTS :THE CHALLENGE FOR
EDUCATION SYSTEMS >Part I.
The term ‘mother tongue ’,though widely
used,may refer to several different situations.Definitions often include the
following elements:the language(s) that one has learnt first;the language(s)one
identifies with or is identified as a native speaker of by others;the
language(s)one knows best and the language(s)one uses most.‘Mother tongue ’ may
also be referred to as ‘primary ’ or ‘first language ’.The term ‘mother tongue’
is commonly used in policy statements and in the general discourse on
educational issues.It is retained in this document for that reason, although it
is to be noted that the use of the term ‘mother tongue ’ often fails to
discriminate between all the variants of a language used by a native speaker,
ranging from hinterland varieties to urban-based standard languages used as
schoolmother tongue. A child ’s earliest first-hand experiences in native
speech do not necessarily correspond to the formal school version of the
so-called mother tongue. It is an obvious yet not generally recognized truism
that learning in a language which is not one ’s own provides a double set of
challenges,not only is there the challenge of learning a new language but also
that of learning new knowledge contained in that language.These challenges may
be further exacerbated in the case of certain groups are already in situations
of educational risk or stress such as illiterates,minorities and
refugees.Gender considerations cross cut these situations of educational
risk,for girls and women may be in most
traditional societies,it is the girls and women who tend to be monolingual,
being less exposed either through schooling,salaried labour,or migration to the
national language, than their sons,brothers or husbands. Studies have shown
that, in many cases, instruction in the mother tongue is beneficial to language
competencies in the first language, achievement in other subject areas,and
second language learning.3 The
application of the principle of mother tongue instruction nevertheless is far
from being the rule. Some of the difficulties encountered by the use of mother
tongues as languages of instruction may include the following:
_sometimes the mother tongue may be an
unwritten language;
_sometimes the language may not even be
generally recognized as constituting a legitimate language;
_the appropriate terminology for education
purposes may still have to be developed;
_there may be a shortage of educational
materials in the language;
_the multiplicity of languages may exacerbate
the difficulty of providing schooling in each mother tongue;
_there may be a lack of appropriately trained
teachers;
_there may be resistance to schooling in the
mother tongue by students, parents and teachers.
Linguistic rights
Language is not only a tool for communication
and knowledge but also a fundamental attribute of cultural identity and
empowerment, both for the individual and the group. Respect for the languages
of persons belonging to different linguistic communities therefore is essential
to peaceful cohabitation. This applies both to majority groups, to minorities
(whether traditionally resident in a country or more recent migrants)and to
indigenous peoples. Claims for language are among the first rights that
minorities have voiced when there have been situations of political change and
evolution.Such claims for linguistic rights range from the official and legal
status of the minority and indigenous language,to language teaching and use in
schools and other institutions,as well as in the media.In regard to education,
the linguistic rights that have been framed in international agreements 4 for minority and indigenous groups include the
following:
_schooling in their languages,if so desired;
_access to the language of the larger community
and to that of national education systems;
_inter-cultural education that promotes
positive attitudes to minority and indigenous languages and the cultures they
express;
_access to international languages.
The educational rights that have been
formulated in international agreements for migrant workers and members of their
families 5 provide:
_that the integration of their children should
be facilitated by teaching the language in use in the school system;
_that opportunities should be created for
teaching children their own language and culture.
Language teaching
The language of instruction in school is the
medium of communication for the transmission of knowledge. This is different
from language teaching itself where the grammar, vocabulary, and the written
and the oral forms of a language constitute a specific curriculum for the
acquisition of a second language other than the mother tongue. Learning another
language opens up access to other value systems and ways of interpreting the
world, encouraging inter-cultural understanding and helping reduce xenophobia.
This applies equally to minority and majority language speakers. The way
languages are taught is constantly changing, and may vary considerably from one
country to another or even within the same country. Much depends on the
prevailing concept of language and language teaching paradigms, as well as on
the role that is assigned to the language that is taught.
Bilingual and multilingual education
Bilingual and multilingual education refers to
the use of two or more languages as mediums of instruction. In much of the
specialized literature, the two types are subsumed under the term bilingual
education. However, UNESCO adopted the term ‘multilingual education ’ in
1999 in the General Conference Resolution 12 to refer to the use of at least
three languages, the mother tongue, a regional or national language and an
international language in education.6 The resolution supported the view that the require participation, and
the specific needs of particular, culturally and linguistically distinct
communities can only be addressed by multilingual education. In regions where
the language of the learner is not the official or national language of the
country, bilingual and multilingual education can make mother tongue
instruction possible while providing at the same time the acquisition of
languages used in larger areas of the country and the world. This additive
approach to bilingualism is different from the so called subtractive
bilingualism which aims to move children on to a second language as a language
of instruction.
The status and role of languages
internationally have been the subject of numerous declarations, recommendations
and agreements. There are some that are particularly relevant to the discussion
on language and education. We begin by placing the discussion on language
within the framework of United Nations agreements and standard-setting
instruments, and follow on with more references to the mandate of UNESCO’s
mission at an international level. Declarations and Recommendations emanating
from inter-governmental conferences are then considered. For the purposes of
this position paper only those agreements of an international nature are
considered. 7 The aim of presenting the
framework in this way is to illustrate the broad international agreement on the
issue of language and its importance in the education system, before moving on
to present in Part III, UNESCO Guidelines on Language and Education.
A. United
Nations standard-setting instruments
As one of the fundamental standard-setting
instruments, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ,proclaimed in 1948,lays
down the basic principle against discrimination on the grounds of language:‘ Article
2.:Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as … language ’. The rights
of persons belonging to minorities are furthermore established by the 1966
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1992 Declaration
on the Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and
Linguistic Minorities .Whereas Article 27 of the International THE NORMATIVE
FRAMEWORK FOR LANGUAGES AND EDUCATION >Part II.
Covenant refers more generally to the right of
persons belonging to minorities ‘to use their own language … in community with
the other members of their group ’,the Declaration is of explicit relevance to
the language issue in the field of education as it formulates in Article 4 that
persons belonging to minorities should have adequate opportunities ‘to learn
their mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue ’ and that
measures should be taken ‘in order to encourage knowledge of the … language and
culture of the minorities ’. The educational rights of indigenous peoples are
addressed by the 1989 ILO Convention 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal
Peoples in Independent Countries .Article 28 requires that ‘children belonging
to the peoples concerned shall, wherever practicable, be taught to read and
write in their own indigenous language or in the language most commonly used by
the group to which they belong ’ and that ‘adequate measures shall be taken to
ensure that these peoples have the opportunity to attain fluency in the
national language or in one of the official languages of the country ’.The
Article provides at the same time that ‘measures shall be taken to preserve and
promote the development and practice of the indigenous languages of the peoples
concerned ’. As far as non-nationals are concerned,the 1985 Declaration on the
Human Rights of Individuals who are not Nationals of the Country in which they
live provides in its Article 5 that ‘Aliens shall enjoy … the right to retain
their own language,culture and tradition.’ The 1990 International Convention on
the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their
Families puts forth that ‘States of employment shall pursue a policy … aimed at
facilitating the integration of children of migrant workers in the local school
system,particularly in respect of teaching them the local language ’, and ‘the
teaching of their mother tongue and culture ’;they may furthermore ‘provide
special schemes of education in the mother tongue of children of migrant
workers ’ (Article 45).
The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child
sheds light on another aspect of the language issue in education.It emphasizes
that language also has to be considered as an educational value.Article 29 sets
up that ‘the education of the child shall be directed to … the development of
respect for the child ’s … cultural identity,language and values ’.
B. UNESCO
declarations and conventions
UNESCO ´s mandate charges it to deal with language
issues.In this sense, Article 1 of the UNESCO Constitution
sets forth the fundamental principle that language should not induce any kind
of discrimination:‘the human rights and fundamental freedoms … are affirmed for
the peoples of the world,,without distinction of race,sex,language or religion
’.
More specifically relating to education,the
1960 Convention against Discrimination in Education lays down the educational
rights of persons belonging to minorities.Article 5 has a particular relevance
to the language issue as the respective roles of the mother tongue and of the
majority language are defined:‘the members of national minorities [have the
right ] to carry on their own educational activities,including … the use or the
teaching of their own language,provided … that this right is not exercised in a
manner which prevents the members of these minorities from understanding the
culture and language of the community as a whole and from participating in its
activities ’.
The 1976 Recommendation on the Development of
Adult Education reinforces the role of the mother tongue as it explicitly
recommends mother tongue instruction and it adopts a broader perspective on
language learning: ‘Article 22.:With regard to ethnic minorities,adult
education activities should enable them to … educate themselves and their
children in their mother tongues,develop their own cultures and learn languages
other than their mother tongues.’
The role of the mother tongue in education was
also referred to in the 1978 Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice that
recommends in Article 9 that ‘steps should be taken to make it possible for [the
] children [of population groups of foreign origin ] to be taught their mother
tongue..’
The 1995 Declaration and Integrated Framework
of Action on Education for Peace,Human Rights and Democracy promotes foreign
language learning (Article 19)and the ‘respect for the educational rights of
persons belonging to … minorities,,as well as indigenous peoples ’ in order to
foster understanding between communities and nations (Article 29).
The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
,adopted in 2001,likewise touches upon the importance of languages for the
promotion of cultural diversity.Article 6 of the Action Plan for the
implementation of the Declaration defines the role that languages should play
in the field of education including respect for the mother tongue,linguistic
diversity at all levels of education and the promotion of multilingualism from
an early age.
C. Outcomes
from international conferences
Many of the world summits held in recent years
under the auspices of the United Nations and following an inter-governmental
logic have noted the core importance of languages. A case in point is The
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted in 1995 at the Fourth
World Conference on Women affirms the principle of equal access to education
which has to be achieved through the elimination of ‘discrimination in
education at all levels on the basis of … language..’ Mother tongue instruction
appears to be a recurrent issue.The Delhi Declaration and Framework for Action
,adopted in 1993 at the Education for All Summit,takes an explicit stand on the
issue of mother tongue instruction by supporting ‘initial instruction in the
mother tongue,even if it may in some cases be necessary for the students to
subsequently master a national language or other language of wider usage if
they are to participate effectively in the broader society of which they are
part.’ The need to acknowledge ‘the
essential role of the mother tongue for initial
instruction ’ is also formulated in the 1996 Amman Affirmation ,the final
communiqué of the Mid-Decade Meeting of the International Consultative Forum on
Education for All. The 1997 Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning ,adopted at
the Fifth International Conference on Adult Education,states the importance of
the issue for minority groups and indigenous peoples and proposes that ‘the
right to learn in the mother tongue should be respected and implemented
’(Article 15).The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the
World Conference on Human Rights (1993)provides more generally in section I,
paragraph 19 that the ‘persons belonging to minorities have the right … to use
their own language in private and in public,freely and without interference or
any form of discrimination ’. The 1998 World Declaration on Higher Education
for the Twenty-first Century:Vision and Action puts forth the importance of
multilingualism in higher education:in order to encourage international
understanding,‘the practice of multilingualism,faculty and student exchange
programmes … should be an integral part of all higher education systems
’(Article 15). In the field of language and education,the recent reports and
recommendations of the International Conference on Education (ICE)have emphasized the importance of:
_mother tongue instruction at the beginning of
formal education for pedagogical,social and cultural considerations;8
_multilingual education with a view to the
preservation of cultural identities and the promotion of mobility and dialogue;9
_foreign language learning as part of an
intercultural education aiming at the promotion of understanding between
communities and between nations.10
There are certain basic guiding principles which have been common to all the documents, agreements and recommendations produced throughout the years of UNESCO’s mandate for action in this field. These have led us to produce a set of guidelines which represent the organization’s current approach to language and education in the twenty-first century, and which should serve to state the position of the international community in its various member states. These guidelines are entirely based on a review of previous declarations and recommendations, and represent the diversity of thinking on this complex and challenging issue. They are divided into three basic principles:
1. supports mother tongue instructionas a means of improving educational
quality by building upon the knowledge and experience of the learners and
teachers.
2. supports bilingual and/or multilingual education at all levels of
education as a means of promoting both social and gender equality and as a key
element of linguistically diverse societies.
3. supports language as an essential component of inter-cultural education
in order to encourage understanding between different population groups and
ensure respect for fundamental rights. A series of more specific orientations
corresponds to each of these basic principles.
Principle I
UNESCO supports mother tongue instruction 11 as a means of improving educational quality by
building upon the knowledge and experience of the learners and teachers.
(I Mother tongue instruction is essential for
initial instruction 12 and literacy 13 and should ‘be extended to as late a stage in
education as possible ’:14 _‘every
pupil should begin his [or her ] formal educationin his [or her ] mother tongue
’;15
_‘adult illiterates should make their first
steps to literacy through their mother tongue,passing on to a second language
if they desire and are able ’;16 _if a
given locality has a variety of languages,ways and means should be sought ‘to
arrange instruction groups by mother tongue ’;17 _‘if mixed groups are unavoidable,instruction should be in the language
which gives the least hardship to the bulk of the pupils,and special help
should be given those who do not speak the language of instruction ’.18 (II ‘Literacy can only be maintained if
there is an adequate supply of reading material,for adolescents and adults as
well as for school children,and for entertainment as well as for study ’:19 _The production and distribution of teaching
materials and learning resources and any other reading materials in mother
tongues should be promoted.20 (III
With regard to teacher training and mother tongue instruction:‘All educational
planning should include at each stage early provision for the training,and
further training,of sufficient numbers of fully competent and qualified
teachers of the country concerned who are familiar with the life of their
people and able to teach in the mother tongue.’21
Principle II
UNESCO supports bilingual and/or multilingual
education at all levels of education 22 as a means of promoting both social and gender equality and as a key
element of linguistically diverse societies.
(I ‘Communication,expression and the capacity
to listen and dialogue [should be encouraged ],first of all in the mother
tongue,then,[if the mother tongue is different from the official or national
language,] in the official [or national ] language in the country,as well as in
one or more foreign languages ’23 through:
_‘the early acquisition … of a second language in addition to the mothe tongue
’;24 _the introduction of ‘the
second language … as a subject of instruction ’25 the amount of which ‘should be increased gradually ’26 and which should not become the medium of
instruction ‘until the pupils are sufficiently familiar with it ’.27 _‘further education in this second language at
primary-school level based on its use as a medium of instruction,thus using two
languages for the acquisition of knowledge throughout the school course up to
university level; _intensive and trans-disciplinary learning of at least a
third … language in secondary school,so that when pupils leave school they have
a working
knowledge of three languages – which should
represent the normal range of practical linguistic skills in the twenty-first
century ’.28 (II
‘International exchanges of primary-and secondary-school teachers [should be
promoted ] for teaching their subjects in schools in other countries,using
their own languages and thus enabling their pupils to acquire both knowledge
and linguistic skills ’.29 (III
Emphasis should be given to the formulation of ‘strong national policies
designed to promote … language teaching in cyberspace [and the strengthening
and extension of ] international support and assistance to developing countries
to facilitate the development of freely accessible materials on language
education in the electronic form and to the enhancement of human capital skills
in this area’
Principle III
UNESCO supports language as an essential
component of inter-cultural education in order to encourage
under-standing between different population groups and ensure respect for
fundamental rights.
(I Measures should be taken ‘to eliminate
discrimination in education at all levels on the basis of
gender,race,language,religion,national origin,age or disability or any other
form of discrimination ’.31 (II
The ‘educational rights of persons belonging to … minorities,,as well as
indigenous peoples ’32 should be fully
respected, through: _the implementation of ‘the right to learn in the mother
tongue ’33 and the ‘full use of
culturally appropriate teaching methods of communication and transmission of
knowledge ’;34 _the teaching of and
through,not only the mother tongue, but also the national or official
languages,as well as global languages of communication, so that minority and
indigenous peoples have the opportunity to participate in and contribute to the
larger community.35 (III Education
should raise ‘awareness of the positive value of cultural [and linguistic ]
diversity ’,36 and to this end:
_‘curriculum [should be reformed ] to promote a realistic and positive
inclusion of the minority [or indigenous ] history,,culture,language and
identity ’.37 _the cultural
component of language teaching and learning should be strengthened in order to
gain a deeper understanding of other cultures;38 ‘languages should not be simple linguistic exercises,but opportunities
to reflect on other ways of life, other literatures, other customs ’.39
Notes
1. cf.Wurm,S.(Ed.)(2001):Atlas of the World ’s Languages in Danger of
Disappearing, Paris,UNESCO Publishing.
2. cf.Grimes,B.(Ed.)(2000):Ethnologue:Languages of the World,14th
Edition,Dallas,Texas,SIL International.
3. cf.the findings of a comprehensive research review carried out for the
World Bank: Dutcher,N.in collaboration with Tucker,G.R.(1997):The Use of First
and Second Languages in Education:A Review of Educational Experience
,Washington D.C.,World Bank,Country Department III:‘The most important
conclusion from the research and experience reviewed in this paper is that when
learning is the goal,including that of learning a second language, the child ’s
first language (i.e.his or her mother tongue)should be used as the medium of
instruction in the early years of schooling.… The first language is essential
for the initial teaching of reading,and for comprehension of subject matter.It
is the necessary foundation for the cognitive development upon which
acquisition of the second language is based ’; cf.also
Mehrotra,S.(1998):Education for All:Policy Lessons From High-Achieving
Countries: UNICEF Staff Working Papers ,New York,Unicef:‘In a situation where
the parents are
illiterate …,if the medium of instruction in school is a language that
is not spoken at home the problems of learning in an environment characterized
by poverty are compounded,and the chances of drop-out increase
correspondingly.In this context,the experience of the high- achievers has been
unequivocal:the mother tongue was used as the medium of instruction at
the primary level in all cases.… There is much research which shows that
students learn to read more quickly when taught in their mother
tongue.Second,students who have learned to read in their mother tongue learn to
read in a second language more quickly than do those who are first taught to
read in the second language.Third,in terms of academic learning skills as well,
students taught to read in their mother tongue acquire such skills more quickly
’;cf.also Dutcher,N:Expanding Educational Opportunity in Linguistically Diverse
Societies ,Center for Applied Linguistics,Washington DC.(2001)
4. cf.Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning UNESCO
(1997);
The Declaration on the Rights of Persons belonging to National or
Ethnic,Religious and Linguistic Minorities (1992);Convention and Recommendation
against Discrimination in Education (1960);18 C/Resolution 1.41:Co-operation
with international non-governmental organizations active in the field of
education (1974);cf.also Chapter III:UNESCO Guidelines on Language and
Education,Principle III.
5. cf.International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all
Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (1990).
6. 30 C/Resolution 12.:Implementation of a Language Policy for the World
Based on Multilingualism (1999).UNESCO.
7. In addition,there are many regional agreements and declarations which
make reference to languages and education (cf.the Durban Statement of
Commitment,Seventh Conference of Ministers of Education of African Member
States 1998;Harare Declaration ,IntergovernmentalConference of Ministers on
Language Policy in Africa 1997;Final Report Seventh Conference of Ministers of
Education of Latin America and the Caribbean,Kingston,1996).
8. cf.International Conference on Education 46th Session 2001 :Final
Report,p.11: ‘It is increasingly obvious that the language of instruction at
the beginning of one ’s education, at such a crucial moment for future
learning,should be the mother tongue.’
9. cf.International Conference on Education 46th Session 2001 :Final
Report,p.17:Educational content needs to reflect ‘the growing importance of
communication,expression and the capacity to listen and dialogue,first of all
in the mother tongue,then in the official language in the country as well as in
one or more foreign languages ’;International Conference on Education 43 rd Session 1992 :Final Report,p.20:‘When choosing the language of
instruction,in particular at the level of basic education,account should be
taken both of the efficiency of the educational process and the right of
individuals and various ethnic groups to preserve their cultural identity, of which
their language is one of the most important vehicles ’.
10. cf.International Conference on Education 46th Session 2001 :Final
Report,p.11: ‘Language learning is a key element for living together
’;International Conference on Education 44th Session 1994 :Final
Report,p.26:‘learning foreign languages offers a means of gaining a deeper
understanding of other cultures,which can serve as a basis for building better
understanding between communities and between nations ’.
11. cf.International Conference on Education 46th Session 2001 :Final
Report; World Education Forum 2000 :Final Report;The Delhi Declaration and
Framework for Action, Education for All Summit 1993;The Use of Vernacular
Languages in Education ,UNESCO,Paris,1953.
12. cf.Amman Affirmation (1996):‘the essential role of the mother tongue for
initial instruction ’ must be acknowledged;The Delhi Declaration and Framework
for Action,Education for All Summit (1993):‘Where the language of instruction
is other than the mother tongue of the learner,it is likely that initial
learning will be slower and achievement lower.For this reason, educators have
long advocated the benefits of offering,wherever possible,initial instruction
in the mother tongue ’.
13. cf.International Conference on Education 42nd Session 1990 :Final
Report:‘In multilingual situations,the policy regarding the language of
literacy should be carefully formulated, especially where the national or
official language is different from local languages. Use of the mother tongue
is desirable.’
14. The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education ,p.35 UNESCO,Paris,(1953).
15. idem,p.68.
16. idem,p.69.
17. idem,p.51.
18. idem,p.51.
19. idem,p.69.
20. cf.International Conference on Education 1992 :‘the preparation of
teaching materials in the mother tongue should be encouraged ’.Final
Report,p.21
21. Recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers adopted by the Special
Intergovernmental Conference on the Status of Teachers 1966.
22. 30 C/Resolution 42.:Towards a culture of peace (1999);cf.also:30 C/Resolution
12.: Implementation of a language policy for the world based on multilingualism
(1999).UNESCO.
23. International Conference on Education 2001 ,Proposals for Action.(para
18)
24. 30 C/Resolution 12.:Implementation of a Language Policy for the World Based
on Multilingualism (1999),UNESCO.
25. The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education,UNESCO,Paris,(1953).
26. idem,p.69.
27. idem,p.69.
28. 30 C/Resolution 12.:Implementation of a Language Policy for the World
Based on Multilingualism (1999).
29. 30 C/Resolution 12.:Implementation of a Language Policy for the World
Based on Multilingualism (1999).
30. Draft Recommendation concerning the Promotion and Use of Multilingualism
and Universal Access to Cyberspace,Paragraph 1 [NOTE:as requested by the 2001
General Conference 31 C/Resolution 33,this Draft recommendation will be
submitted to the executive Board at its 165th session ].
31. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action ,(1995);see also
:-Convention and Recommendation against Discrimination in Education (1960),
Article 1:‘the term ‘discrimination ’ includes any
distinction,,exclusion,limitation or preference which,being based on
race,colour,sex,language,religion,political or other opinion,national or social
origin,economic condition or birth,has the purpose or effect of nullifying or
impairing equality of treatment in education ’.
32. 28 C/Resolution 5.4:Declaration and Integrated Framework of Action on
Education for Peace,Human Rights and Democracy (1995).UNESCO.
33. Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning,Fifth International Conference on
Adult Education 1997,Article 15;the ILO Convention 169 concerning Indigenous
and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (1989)provides that ‘children
belonging to the peoples concerned shall, wherever practicable,be taught to
read and write in their own indigenous language or in the language most
commonly used by the group to which they belong ’ ((Article 28.1); the
Declaration on the Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic,Religious
and Linguistic Minorities (1992)requires States to ‘take measures so
that,wherever possible, persons belonging to minorities may have adequate
opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in their
mother tongue ’ ((Article 4.3).
34. UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001),Action
Plan,paragraph 8.
35. cf.Convention and Recommendation against Discrimination in Education
(1960),Article 5: ‘the members of … minorities [should not be prevented ] from
understanding the culture and language of the community as a whole ’;18
C/Resolution 1.41:Co-operation with international non-governmental
organizations active in the field of education,1974: UNESCO ‘everyone is
entitled to have a thorough knowledge of his own language and a good knowledge
of another language,preferably a language of international communication which
enables him, in conjunction with the grounding which he receives in his
national culture, to have full access to world culture and to the universal
exchange of ideas ’;ILO Convention 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples
in Independent Countries (1989):‘Adequate measures shall be taken to ensure
that these peoples have the opportunity to attain fluency in the national
language or in one of the official languages of the country ’ ((Article 28.2);
Our Creative Diversity :Report of the World Commission on Culture and
Development (1995) UNESCO :‘Schools should teach several languages,in
particular both the local [or minority ] and majority language ’,p.59.
36. UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001),Action
Plan,paragraph 7.
37. Fifth International Conference of Adult Education 1997 :Workshop
Report:Minorities and Adult Learning;cf.also:The Declaration on the Rights of
Persons belonging to National or Ethnic,Religious and Linguistic Minorities
(1992):Article 4.4:‘take measures in the field of education,in order to
encourage knowledge of the … language and culture of the minorities ’; and:Our
Creative Diversity:Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development
(1995),p.60,UNESCO:‘Minority [or indigenous ] cultures [should
have ] a better place not only in the educational system but also in the image
of the ‘national culture ’ each country seeks to adopt and project.’
38. cf.28 C/Resolution 5.4:Declaration and Integrated Framework of Action on
Education for Peace,Human Rights and Democracy (1995),UNESCO,Article
19:‘Learning foreign languages offers a means of gaining a deeper understanding
of other cultures,which can serve as a basis or building better understanding
between communities and between nations.’
39. Our Creative Diversity:Report of the World Commission on Culture and
Development (1995),UNESCO,p.168. UNESCO has an essential role
to play in providing international frameworks for education policy and practice
on key and complex issues.Language and in particular the choice of language of
instruction in education is one such concern and often invokes contrasting and
deeply felt positions.Questions of identity,nationhood and power are closely
linked to the use of specific languages in the classroom. Language
itself,moreover,possesses its own dynamics and is constantly undergoing
processes of both continuity and change,impacting upon the communication modes
of different societies as it evolves. Educational policy makers have difficult
decisions to make with regard to languages,schooling and the curriculum in
which the technical and the political often overlap. While there are strong
educational arguments in favour of mother tongue (or first
language)instruction,a careful balance also needs to be made between enabling
people to use local languages in learning, and providing access to global
languages of communication through education. The purpose of this position
paper,therefore,is to consider some of the central issues concerning languages
and education and to provide related guidelines and principles.In doing so we
are conscious of the need for a clear statement on language policy in relation
to education, particularly within the context of Education for All and in terms
of the Dakar goals of ensuring that by 2015 all children have access to quality
primary education and that there is a 50 per cent increase in adult literacy by
the year 2015.
_UNESCO Education Position Paper_ > Education in a multilingual world
conception
graphique :Atelier Michel Bouvet /Odile Chambaut assistée de charlotte Bretéché
/couverture Odile Chambaut